McClellan Arrives, Surveys the State of Washington's Defenses, and Takes Action

At the end of July 1861, Major General George B. McClellan, fresh from victories in western Virginia, arrived to take command of the Union Army around Washington.  The recent loss at Manassas was on McClellan's mind.  As he later wrote, "[t]he result of the first battle of Manassas had been almost to destroy the morale and organization of our army, and to alarm government and people."  (George B. McClellan, Report on the Organization and Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac, p. 44 (1864).)  McClellan saw himself as just the person to save the Union.  In a July 27, 1861 letter to his wife, Mary Ellen, McClellan bragged that "I see already the main causes of our recent failure -- I am sure that I can remedy these & am confident that I can lead these armies of men to victory once more."

Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan (courtesy of Library of Congress)

As the new commander, one of McClellan's first tasks was to survey the existing defenses around Washington.  He told Mary Ellen in the same letter that he would "start tomorrow very early on a tour through the lines on the other side of the river -- it will occupy me all day long & a rather fatiguing ride it will be -- but I will be able to make up my mind on the state of things."  Other such inspections continued into August.  On the second, he informed Mary Ellen that he had "looked at some of the works" in Virginia.

McClellan's inspection of the lines around the nation's capital led him to one conclusion -- "[t]he national capital was in danger. It was necessary, besides holding the enemy in check, to build works for its defense, strong and capable of being held by a small force."  (Report, p. 44.)  In Virginia, he noted "the troops were stationed at and in rear of Fort Corcoran, Arlington, and Fort Albany, at Fort Runyon, Roach's Mills, Cole's Mill, and in the vicinity of Fort Ellsworth, with a detachment at the Theological Seminary."  (Report, p. 50.)  However,  "[t]here were no troops south of Hunting Creek, and many of the regiments were encamped on the low grounds bordering the Potomac,—seldom in the best positions for defense, and entirely inadequate in numbers and condition to defend the long line from Fort Corcoran to Alexandria."  (Report, p. 50.)  Things were no better on the Maryland side, where "upon the heights overlooking the Chain Bridge, two regiments were stationed, whose commanders were independent of each other."  (Report, p. 50.)  Moreover, "[t]here were no troops on the important Tenallytown road, or on the roads entering the city from the south."  (Report, p. 50.)  Camps "were located without regard to purposes of defense or instruction" and "the roads were not picketed." (Report, p. 50.)

McClellan recognized the sheer vulnerability of the capital to a Confederate attack:

In no quarter were the dispositions for defense such as to offer a vigorous resistance to a respectable body of the enemy either in the positions and numbers of the troops, or the number and character of the defensive works. Earthworks in the nature of "tetes-de-pont" looked upon the approaches to the Georgetown aqueduct and ferry, the Long Bridge, and Alexandria by the Little River Turnpike, and some simple defensive arrangements were made at the Chain Bridge. With the latter exception, not a single defensive work had been commenced on the Maryland side.  (Report, pp. 50-51.)

The new commander worried that "[t]here was nothing to prevent the enemy shelling the city from heights within easy range, which could be occupied by a hostile column almost without resistance."  (Report, p. 51.)

Photo of John G. Barnard, after promotion to Brigadier General (courtesy of Library of Congress)

McClellan wasted no time in addressing the situation.  He "at once gave the necessary instructions" to his Chief Engineer, Major John G. Barnard, "for the completion of the defenses of the capital."  (Report, p.62.)  Before long, Barnard had soldiers at work on strengthening the Arlington line of defense.  What followed in the coming months and years would make Washington the most heavily fortified city in the Western Hemisphere.  McClellan is often the focus of criticism and downright scorn, but his instrumental role in organizing the defenses of Washington should not be overlooked.

Aqueduct Bridge over the Potomac: Yesterday and Today

My wife and I decided to take a walk along the Chesapeake & Ohio (C&O) Canal in Georgetown this past Memorial Day.  Our little attempt at exercise gave me the perfect opportunity to check out the remains of the Aqueduct Bridge, which are located next to the canal path in the vicinity of present-day Key Bridge.  Readers may recall that I have mentioned the Aqueduct Bridge in numerous posts over the past year.  This bridge was one of three river crossings into Virginia from the D.C. side of the Potomac at the time of the Civil War.

The Aqueduct Bridge dates to the antebellum period, when Alexandria comprised part of the federal District of Columbia.  Alexandria, a port city, desired to benefit from the trade that was moving along the C&O Canal to rival Georgetown.  In 1830, a group of Virginia merchants formed the Alexandria Canal Company.  They sought to extend the C&O Canal to the Virginia side of the Potomac River, and from there, to Alexandria.  The Aqueduct Bridge, known as the Alexandria Aqueduct or Potomac Aqueduct, was designed to carry the canal across the river. Construction on the bridge and the Alexandria Canal began in the early 1830s and was completed in 1843.  The bridge, an engineering marvel of the 19th century, cost a staggering sum of around one million dollars.  With the extension of the C&O Canal to Cumberland, Maryland in 1850, the Aqueduct Bridge played a key role in bringing coal from western Maryland to the the port at Alexandria. 

The Aqueduct Bridge featured prominently at the start of the Civil War.  Virginia voters officially approved secession on May 23, 1861, and in the early morning hours of May 24, Union soldiers moved to occupy Alexandria and Arlington Heights.  A Federal column including the 5th, 28th, and 69th New York crossed the Aqueduct Bridge into Virginia.  Not long afterward, the Union Army constructed Forts Corcoran, Bennet, and Haggerty to guard the approaches to Aqueduct Bridge from the Virginia side of the river.  These forts comprised part of what would become the ring of defenses built to protect Washington during the war. 

The Aqueduct Bridge from the Washington side, with the C&O Canal in the foreground, ca. 1862-65 (courtesy of Library of Congress).

In his A Report on the Defenses of Washington to the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army (1871), Brevet Major General John Gross Barnard noted that the Union military decided that a "permanent and secure bridge connecting Washington with the Virginia shore" was preferable to the use of the Aqueduct Bridge to transport military supplies to Alexandria by way of the canal. Some officers, as well as the canal company, initially objected to the suspension of canal operations across the Aqueduct Bridge. A "boat bridge" was contemplated for military purposes, but proved an unrealistic alternative given concerns about water depth, flooding, ice, and currents. Barnard described the subsequent transformation of the Aqueduct Bridge:

The tow-path of the aqueduct did indeed furnish a narrow passageway to horsemen and footmen; but this was far from adequate to the military exigencies. Accordingly, early in the winter of 1861-'62, the water was shut off from the aqueduct and its trough converted into a double-track wagonroad, the floor being overlaid with 4-inch planks and long inclines, on trestles, forming connections with the roads on either side.

Eventually three blockhouses and a rifle trench were placed at the Virginia end of the Aqueduct Bridge. The head of the bridge was also enclosed with a stockade to protect more effectively against cavalry raids. The Union Army contemplated placing a shore battery in Georgetown to command the length of the bridge, but decided against this defensive measure.  A guard of one officer and thirty men usually covered each end of the Aqueduct Bridge.

One of the blockhouses near Aqueduct Bridge on the Virginia side (courtesy of Library of Congress).

Barnard, who oversaw the construction of the the defensive works around the nation's capital, concluded in his report that "the aqueduct served perfectly, throughout the entire period of the war, its new destination, and was recognized as an important and essential adjunct to the 'Defenses of Washington' and to the great military operations in Virginia."


Looking at the top of the remains of the Aqueduct Bridge's Washington abutment along the C&O Canal.  The canal entered here and crossed the Potomac. The Key Bridge dominates in the background.  The office buildings of Rosslyn, Virginia are visible across the Potomac River.



Another view of the Aqueduct Bridge during the Civil War (courtesy of Library of Congress).  This photograph was taken from across the Potomac in Virginia.  The Washington abutment is visible where the bridge hits the shore in Georgetown.

A side view of the Washington abutment.  The arch to the left was expanded in 1889 to accommodate the Washington branch of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. 

The bridge was returned to canal usage after the Civil War.  In 1923, the Aqueduct Bridge was closed when the Key Bridge was built next door, and in 1933, the old bridge was largely dismantled.  Today the remaining Washington abutment is a visible reminder of the existence of the Aqueduct Bridge and the place it occupied in the capital's Civil War history.

Happy St. Patrick's Day!: The 69th New York at Fort Corcoran

Like many Civil War enthusiasts, I have always been fascinated with the exploits of the famed Irish Brigade, even though I don't have a drop of Irish blood in my body!  On this St. Patrick's Day, I was looking for an interesting Northern Virginia connection to the unit.  It turns out that Fort Corcoran in Arlington was constructed in May 1861 with the help of the 69th New York State Militia, a regiment which eventually formed the core of the Irish Brigade.  The fort, one of the first built around Washington during the Civil War, defended the approaches to the Aqueduct Bridge, along with Forts Bennett and Haggerty.  Fort Corcoran was named after Colonel Michael Corcoran, leader of the 69th New York.  The regiment fought at Bull Run and re-enrolled as the 69th New York State Volunteers when its 90-day enlistment period expired.  Colonel Thomas Francis Meagher, who replaced Colonel Corcoran after his capture at Bull Run, sought to organize an all-Irish unit.  His wish was granted, and he soon was leading the Irish Brigade.

Officers of the 69th New York State Militia at Ft. Corcoran, 1861.  Col. Corcoran is at the far left. (courtesy of the Library of Congress)

Civil War Forts of Arlington Tour, Part II: Fort C.F. Smith & Fort Bennett

As I wrote in my last post, this past Saturday I went on a tour of Civil War forts sponsored by Arlington County.  Our first stop was Fort Ethan Allen, close to the Chain Bridge over the Potomac.  The group headed next to Fort C.F. Smith Park (2411 24th Street N., Arlington VA 22207), where our guide, David Farner, is park manager.  The 19-acre park contains the remains of Fort C.F. Smith, as well as a walking trail, ornamental peace garden, and bird creek.  A 20th-century mansion on the grounds can be rented for weddings and other occasions.  The property was purchased by Arlington County in the mid-1990s.  This move prevented the site from falling into the hands of private developers who may have been less inclined towards preserving and interpreting the history of the property. 

Fort C.F. Smith

The Union Army built Fort C.F. Smith in early 1863 to extend the "Arlington Line" of forts in Alexandria (now Arlington) County to the Potomac River.  This installation, together with Forts Strong, Morton, and Woodbury, served to protect the Chesapeake & Ohio (C&O) Canal crossing at Aqueduct Bridge, near the current day Key Bridge.  Fort C.F. Smith also covered a tributary ravine of Spout Run that was not under the protection of Fort Strong's artillery.

The fort, built as a lunette with a west and south face, had a perimeter of 368 yards.  Of the two faces, only part of the west wall remains.  Although there were emplacements for 22 guns and four siege mortars, just16 guns and four mortars were installed.  Various buildings, including the mess hall, barracks, and officers' quarters were erected to the east of the fort, but these structures were torn down after the war, and no traces remain.  Fort C.F. Smith was garrisoned by troops from several regiments, including the 2nd New York Heavy Artillery, the 1st New Hampshire Heavy Artillery, and the 4th Massachusetts Heavy Artillery.
 
The fort was built on land belonging to Thomas Jewell.  The Union Army wrecked Jewell's home, which was painted a distinct red, to make way for the fort.  Initially called the "Fort at Red House," the fort was named after Major General Charles Ferguson Smith, who commanded soldiers under Ulysses S. Grant at Fort Donelson in February 1862. As the defeated Confederate force prepared to surrender, Smith advised that Grant ask the enemy for nothing less than "unconditional and immediate surrender." Grant obliged, and the "Unconditional Surrender" nickname stuck with Grant throughout the remainder of the war.  Smith died of complications from a seemingly minor non-combat leg injury in April 1862.
 

Major General C.F. Smith (courtesy of the Library of Congress)

Several features of Fort C.F. Smith are still visible, including the west wall and ditch, north magazine, gun platforms, and bombproof. 

Looking towards the west wall and gun platforms.  A replica M1841 6-pounder occupies one of the emplacements. Visible in the foreground is a Civil War Trails marker, one of four historical markers on the property.

Co. F, 2nd New York Heavy Artillery along the west wall, August 1865.  This photograph was taken from the north magazine (courtesy of the Library of Congress). 



Remains of the north magazine near the west rampart of the fort.



A close-up view of the 6-pounder in an emplacement along the west wall.  A limber sits in front of the north magazine.

Well-preserved remains of gun placements along the west wall.

Looking along the west face of the fort towards the north.  The ditch is clearly visible below.

Remains of the western side of the bombproof.



Co. K, 2nd New York Heavy Artillery, in front of the east side of the bombproof. The timber was removed after the war, and today, only remnants of the dirt cover are visible.

Fort Bennett

After completing our tour at Fort C.F. Smith, we headed deeper into another residential neighborhood and parked around the 1600 block of 22nd Street N.  A historical marker tells the story of Fort Bennett, but no traces of the fort remain. The marker is actually located downhill from the original site of the fort, now buried underneath the suburban streets.  Arlington also runs  Fort Bennett Park, which overlooks the Potomac River and Georgetown.  We made a quick stop at the park to examine the terrain.



Fort Bennett Historical Marker, 22nd Street N., Arlington, Virginia.


In May 1861, the Union Army entered Virginia and began construction of the first defensive works. Fort Bennett, with a perimeter of just 146 yards and five artillery emplacements, was designed to protect the Aqueduct Bridge and lend support to nearby Fort Corcoran. Looking at the commanding position above the Potomac River and Key Bridge from Fort Bennett Park, I gained a good understanding of why the fort was built in this area. The fort's namesake is Captain Michael P. Bennett of the 28th New York Infantry, who directed its construction.

Close-up view from Fort Bennett Park across the Potomac to the surviving abutment of the Aqueduct Bridge in Georgetown.

View of Aqueduct Bridge from across the Potomac in Virginia, roughly in the same spot where the above photograph was taken (courtesy of the Library of Congress).

After this short stop at the Fort Bennett site, we set out for our final stop. Overall, I was very impressed by Fort C.F. Smith.  Along with Ft. Ward in Alexandria, Fort C.F. Smith is one of the best sites to visit in the Civil War defenses of Washington.  As the pictures indicate, the remains of the fort are very well preserved, and a visitor can really get a sense for the apprearance of the place during the war.  Fort Bennett represents the opposite extreme -- history lost to time and development.  At least a marker bears witness to what happend on the heights of Arlington nearly 150 years ago.

Chain Bridge: Commuting Through History, Part II

Crossing Chain Bridge, I have frequently glanced up at the expansive sky, spreading out over the river and trees below.  The view is more open than the during the Civil War, when wooden beams crossed overhead.  In1861, the skies over Chain Bridge witnessed some interesting episodes in early military aviation.

The Union and Confederate Armies both used balloons for reconnaissance purposes during the Civil War.  President Lincoln established the Balloon Corps, under the Union's Bureau of Topographical Engineers, in the summer of 1861.  Professor Thaddeus S.C. Lowe, a balloonist who had demonstrated his technology before Lincoln, was given permission to procure necessary equipment and personnel.

Thaddeus S.C. Lowe (Smithsonian National Air & Space Museum)

Union Brigadier General Fitz John Porter was convinced of the military value of Lowe's balloons and in September 1861, persuaded Major General George B. McClellan, commander of the Army of the Potomac, to approve a plan for aerial reconnaissance of Confederate positions in Falls Church, Virginia from a vantage point at Chain Bridge. The balloon ascended on September 10 and evidently proved its usefulness. Brigadier General William F. "Baldy" Smith, commander of the defenses around Chain Bridge, pushed for further ascensions.  On September 13, Smith himself went up with Lowe at Chain Bridge to survey Confederate troop movements across the Potomac.  Several days later, on September 24, Smith used balloon observation from a site at Fort Corcoran, near Aqueduct Bridge, to direct artillery fire on Falls Church from Smith's batteries around Chain Bridge, three miles distant.  Direction was relayed from the balloon to the artillery position by means of telegraph and signal flag.  This episode marked the first artillery fire direction with aerial observation in American history.

One of Lowe's balloons, the Intrepid (Library of Congress)

On October 12, 1861, Lowe was working on the construction of balloons in Philadelphia when he was asked to report to General Smith near Lewinsville, Virginia.  Arriving in Washington that same day, he was ordered to leave immediately for Smith's headquarters. With balloon in tow, Lowe and his men set out at night through the streets of Washington, trying hard not to get tangled in the telegraph wires overhead.  When they reached Chain Bridge about 3 a.m., they found the road crowded with artillery and cavalry headed to Virginia.  Rather than wait for the bridge to clear, Lowe had his men climb the trestles and mount the stringers -- only eighteen feet wide and 100 feet above the swift-moving Potomac -- where they towed the balloon over the bridge.  Lowe directed the management of the ropes.  As he described it, "the scene was novel, exciting, and not a little dangerous."

Lowe and his men were exhausted when they reached Lewinsville at dawn on the 13th, about a mile from Smith's headquarters.  Unfortunately, a strong wind began blowing, and attempts to fasten the balloon were unsuccessful.  The balloon broke free of its moorings and floated eastward all the way to Delaware, where it was found by a farmer with suspected Confederate sympathies.  Unionist neighbors prevailed over local secessionists, and the balloon was returned to the Union Army.  Surprisingly, the balloon had suffered little damage.

When crossing Chain Bridge, I can't help but think of the band of Balloon Corpsmen who struggled to get the balloon across the Potomac as they balanced on wooden beams, only to lose their precious cargo on the opposite shore a few hours later.  I wonder how Smith reacted, but we know that Lowe survived to conduct future reconnaissance missions, including during the 1862 Peninsula Campaign near Richmond.